JOHN HOWARD Chris Scneider Northen Illinois University (Forthcoming, Sage Prison Encyclopedia, 2005, Mary Bosworth, Editor) The origins of contemporary prison reform in the United States can be traced to an 18th century English Sherrif, John Howard (1726-1790). At first glance, Howard seems an unlikely champion of prison reform. Born in 1726 in Enfield, England to a comfortable middle class family, Howard's childhood was disrupted by his uncertain health and the death of his mother when he was five, and by his father's death when he was 16. His subsequent years were spend in travel, and on a trip to Portugal in 1756, his ship was captured by French privateers, which shaped his future passion for prison reform (JHSA, 1991). As a prisoner of the privateers, he received no food or water while the ship sailed to Brest, Belgium. Howard spent the next six days in a dungeon where treatment of its prisoners was not much different than on the ship. Howard was subjected to further imprisonment at Morlaix, but was soon exchanged for a French officer. After release, Howard reported his experience to the British Commissioner of Sick and Wounded Seamen, and he succeded in securing action to alleviate the conditions of the other English seamen. This incident was instrumental in triggering his passion for subseqent social reform and later for prison reform (Guy 1875; Lewis, 1998; JHSA, 1991). In 1773, Howard was appointed as the Sheriff of Bedford. One of Howard's civic duties, neglected by his predecessors, was to inspect prisons. He soon found that the three regional prisons treated prisoners with considerable cruelty. He also found large numbers of men who were held captive because of inability to pay jailers' fees, which prisoners were required to pay in lieu of jailers' salary. The fee arrangement provided no incentive for gaolers to improve conditions and provide basic amenities. Up to that time, a previous unsuccessful attempt had been made to introduce legislation changing how gaolers were paid. However, it was not until Howard made his case to the English Parliament that two Gaol Acts were passed in 1774. The first set all prisoners free who were held for nonpayment of goaler fees, and authorized gaoler salaries. The second bill addressed health in prisons by encouraging improvement of sanitary conditions (Guy 1875; JHSA, 1991). At his own expense, Howard voluntarily began touring the prisons of Europe to promote reform. He focused especially on architecture, noting that water, circulation, and light were generally inadequate. Combined with lack of fuel, inadequate clothing, poor hygeine and lack of food, prisons were badly in need of reform. Drawing from his observations in British and European prisons, in 1777, he published a pamphlet, The State of Prisons in England and Wales, which became influential both England and other countries. Howard especially drew attention to many prisons having inadequate water (Sweeting 1884). Shortly after publishing his second and final book, Lazarettos, in 1789, he set off once more for Eastern Europe. After tending to a prisoner with typhus, Howard became ill and died January 20, 1790. Yet, 200 years after his death, his legacy continues. Howard is credited as the discoverer or inventor of many modern methods of dealing with social wrongs in prisons (Guy 1875; JHSA, 1991). He also introduced the "dawn of practical hygiene" to prisons (Sweeting 1884:140). Two influential prison reform organizations currently bear his name: The John Howard Association of Alberta, Canada, and the John Howard Association in Chicago, Illinois. Both have expanded his legacy by successfully advocating for improved prison conditions and treatment. References Lewis, Brenda Ralph. 1998. John Howard. http://www.britannia.com/history/biographies/jhoward.html Guy, William A. 1875. "John Howard's True Place in History." Journal of the Statistical of London. 38:430-437. John Howard Society of Alberta (JHSA). 1991. "John Howard: Portrait of a Hero." A Publication of the John Howard Society of Alberta: http://www.johnhoward.nf.ca/org/jh_hstry.HTM Sweeting, R.D.R. 1884. "The Experiences and Opinions of John Howard on Preservation and Improvement Of the Health of Inmates of Schools, Prisons, Workhouses, Hospitals, and Other Public Institutions, as far as Health is Affected by Structural Arrangements Relating to Supplies to Air and Water, Drainage, &c." Journal of the Statistical Society of London 47:25-141.