Elmira Reformatory
By Josh Stone
(Forthcoming, 2005: Sage Encyclopedia of Prisons. M. Bosworth (ed).
Thousand Oaks, Calif)
=======
Ironically, "Elmira" conjures up both the best and the worst of
prison history in the United States. Elmira, New York, was originally known
for a prison opened to contain Conferate prisons of war It became known as
a "death camp" because of the squalid conditions and high
high death rate in its few years of operation. Approximately one quarter of
the 12,000 southern prisoners died there between summer, 1864 and
the war's conclusion in 1865. Today,
only a large stone plaque marks the residential
area that once was known as "Helmira."
But, the opening of New York State's Elmira Reformatory at a different
site in 1876 marked an important
shift in the history of U.S. penology.
Built as the first rehabilitation-oriented institution in the country,
the ideals of the early 19th century's
penitentiary model, which were embodied in the Pennsylvania and Auburn
systems, were supplanted by the new ideals of the reformatory
movement. Fixed sentences intended to fit the crime were replaced by
the new indeterminate sentence designed to fit the criminal. Mass
discipline and physical punishment would give way to individual
classification, with privileges as rewards. Instead of releasing the
criminal unconditionally after his debt to society was paid, the
reformatory's "new parole procedure would assure he did not begin running
up a new tab" ("Elmira", 1998).
In 1869, the New York legislature authorized the purchase of 280
acres of land in Elmira, and
the original plans for the reformatory made provisions for
500 prisoners. Cell blocks would arranged so that prisoners could be
divided by classification, but not completely isolated. Construction soon
With the majority of physical labor being done by
inmates from other state prisons, Elmira received its first prisoners in
July, 1876. Thirty inmates transferred from the Auburn prison to
help finish construction, with others following as the construction
progressed. By 1879, the $1.5 million project was nearly
completed, and the appearance of the institution reflected its purpose.
Zebulon Brockway, superintendent of Elmira from 1876 until 1900,
commented:
The very outward appearance of the reformatory so little like
the ordinary prison and so much like a college or a hospital helps to
change the common sentiment about offenders from the vindictiveness of
punishment to the amenities of rational educational correction" (Brockway,
1969).
This thinking spawned a new vocabulary at Elmira. The institution
itself was referred to as "the college on the hill" or "a reformatory
hospital." Inmates were deemed "students" or "patients"
(Blomberg & Lucken, 2000: p71).
Elmira's reformatory program was, originally intended for first-time felons
between
the ages of 16 and 30, was developed by Brockway. It combined the
indeterminate sentence, a mark system of classification, and parole
(Rotman, 1990). The first indeterminate sentencing law, which also was drafted
by Brockway, was enacted in New York in 1877 and applied only to the
Elmira Reformatory. This law retained the maximum penalties in the state
statutes while typically setting the minimum sentence at one year. The
amount of time served between the minimum and maximum was up to the
supervisor, and ultimately, the prisoner himself (Witmer, 1925).
According to Brockway (1910),
The indeterminate sentence was important for reformation in that
...the indeterminateness of the sentence breeds
discontent, broods purposefulness, and prompts to new exertion.
Captivity, always irksome, is now increasingly so because the duty and
responsibility of shortening it and of modifying any undesirable present
condition of it devolves upon the prisoner himself, and, again, by the
active exactions of the standard and criterion to which he must attain
(Brockway, 1910).
To shorten his sentence, the prisoner was forced to adhere
to the reformatory program. Not only did this entail good behavior, but
he also was requires to earn good marks in work and school. Elmira's
educational program consisted of educated inmates, college professors,
public school teachers, and lawyers teaching a wide range of general
subjects, as well as sports, religion, and military drill. In addition, a
trade school served to provide inmates with the entry level skills needed
for work in such fields as tailor cutting, plumbing, telegraphy, and
printing (Rotman 1990). The inmates progress through Brockway's
reformation program was traced through a mark system of classification,
similar to the merit and demerit system used in the military academies
(Brockway 1910). Upon entering the reformatory, the inmate was placed in
the second of three grades for an observation period of six months. If
the inmate failed to comply with the program, he would be demoted to the
third grade where he would stay until he proved himself worthy of
returning to the second grade. Demotion to the third grade meant
increased punishment and the loss of privileges. The inmate would be
placed in a red uniform and forced to march in lockstep. In addition, he
would be denied writing, mail, and visitation privileges. On the other
hand, six months of good behavior in the second grade would earn an inmate
promotion to the first grade and the privileges that went along with it.
The first grade entitled the inmate to a comfortable blue uniform, a
spring mattress, better food, and extended library and bedtime hours. An
additional six months of good behavior in the first grade, coupled with
other criteria, such as the inmate's offense of conviction, number of
marks earned or lost, attitude, history and future plans, would determine
the inmate's eligibility for parole (Blomberg & Lucken, 2000). Parole,
which was typically set at a minimum of six months, served as a test to
determine how much of the reformation program had been absorbed. Once on
parole, the prisoner worked at prearranged employment in the field in
which he had been trained, with required "monthly reports certified by the
employer and [parole] supervisor". Upon completion of this trial period
of freedom, and barring any setbacks on behalf of the prisoner, he would
become a free man (Brockway, 1969).
By the time Brockway retired in 1900, the population of Elmira had
grown to roughly 1,500 inmates. However, many of his original programs had
remained in place, most notably the classification system. Brockway
believed in interviewing each new inmate to discover any potential
problems or needs, and then placed them in programs that could best reform them.
These ideas were expanded in 1917 by Dr. Frank Christian, one of
Brockway's successors. The culmination of Brockway's and Christian's work
was the building of a reception center at Elmira in 1945, which officially
became a part of the main facility in 1970, resulting in the reformatory
being renamed the Elmira Correctional and Reception Center. Even though
Elmira is no longer a reformatory, many of the programs that began with
Brockway can be seen modern corrections. The Elmira Correctional and
Reception center still has very active educational and industrial
programs, as do many other prisons across the nation. In addition,
although the indeterminate sentence and parole have come under attack
recently, they, along with classifications of prisoners and the use of
privileges as rewards, still serve key functions in corrections today
("Elmira", 1998).
Further reading
Blomberg, T. G. , & Lucken, C. (2000). _American Penology_. New York:
Aldine De Gruyter.
Brockway, Z.R. (1969). _Fifty Years of Prison Service: An Autobiography_.
Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.
Brockway, Z. R. (1910). "The American Reformatory Prison System". _The
American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 15, No. 4._, 454-477.
"Elmira" (1998). _DOCS Today, October 1998_. [On-Line]. Available:
http://www.geocities.com/MotorCity/Downs/3548/facility/elmira.html
Farr, George R. nd. "The Federal Confederate Prisoner of War Camp at Elmira."
http://www.rootsweb.com/~srgp/military/elmcivwr.htm
Gray, Michael P. 1999.
"Elmira, A City on a Prison-camp Contract."
http://www.gloverfamily.com/civilwar/elmira/elmirahistory.htm
Rotman, E. (1990). _Beyond Punishment: A New View on the Rehabilitation of
Criminal Offenders_. New York: Greenwood Press.
Witmer, H. L. (1925). "The Development of Parole in the United States".
_Social Forces, Vol. 4, No. 2_, 318-325.
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